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<title>Data Protection Directive</title>

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</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 24em;"><caption class="infobox-title">Directive 95/46/EC</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: #ddd; font-weight: bold;"><a href="Directive_(European_Union)" title="Directive (European Union)">European Union directive</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Title</th><td class="infobox-data">Directive on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Made by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> and <a href="European_Council" title="European Council">Council</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Official_Journal_of_the_European_Union" title="Official Journal of the European Union">Journal</a> reference</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31995L0046">L281, 23 November 1995, p. 31–50</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ccf;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date made</th><td class="infobox-data">24 October 1995</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Entry into force</th><td class="infobox-data">13 December 1995</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Implementation date</th><td class="infobox-data">24 October 1998</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Replaced</th><td class="infobox-data">25 May 2018</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ccf;">Preparative texts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="European_Commission" title="European Commission">Commission</a> proposal</th><td class="infobox-data">C311, 27 November 1992, p. 30–61</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ccf;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amended by</th><td class="infobox-data">Regulation (EC) No 1882/2003</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background-color: #ffcccc; font-weight: bold;">Repealed</td></tr></tbody></table>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border:1px solid #B2BEB"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#B2BEB5">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B2BEB5;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><b><a href="Global_surveillance" title="Global surveillance">Global surveillance</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Disclosures</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Origins_of_global_surveillance" title="Origins of global surveillance">Origins</a></li>

<li><a href="2010s_global_surveillance_disclosures" title="2010s global surveillance disclosures">2013–present</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactions_to_global_surveillance_disclosures" title="Reactions to global surveillance disclosures">Reactions</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Systems</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_government_mass_surveillance_projects" title="List of government mass surveillance projects">List of government mass surveillance projects</a></li>

<li><a href="XKeyscore" title="XKeyscore">XKeyscore</a></li>

<li><a href="PRISM" title="PRISM">PRISM</a></li>

<li><a href="ECHELON" title="ECHELON">ECHELON</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentient_(intelligence_analysis_system)" title="Sentient (intelligence analysis system)">Sentient</a></li>

<li><a href="Carnivore_(software)" title="Carnivore (software)">Carnivore</a></li>

<li><a href="Dishfire" title="Dishfire">Dishfire</a></li>

<li><a href="Stone_Ghost" title="Stone Ghost">Stone Ghost</a></li>

<li><a href="Tempora" title="Tempora">Tempora</a></li>

<li><a href="Frenchelon" title="Frenchelon">Frenchelon</a></li>

<li><a href="Fairview_(surveillance_program)" title="Fairview (surveillance program)">Fairview</a></li>

<li><a href="MYSTIC_(surveillance_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="MYSTIC (surveillance program)">MYSTIC</a></li>

<li><a href="Boundless_Informant" title="Boundless Informant">Boundless Informant</a></li>

<li><a href="Bullrun_(decryption_program)" title="Bullrun (decryption program)">Bullrun</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinwale" title="Pinwale">Pinwale</a></li>

<li><a href="Stingray_phone_tracker" title="Stingray phone tracker">Stingray</a></li>

<li><a href="RAMPART-A" title="RAMPART-A">RAMPART-A</a></li>

<li><a href="Mastering_the_Internet" title="Mastering the Internet">Mastering the Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Jindalee_Operational_Radar_Network" title="Jindalee Operational Radar Network">Jindalee Operational Radar Network</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Selected agencies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<li><a href="Special_Communications_Service_of_Russia" title="Special Communications Service of Russia">Spetssvyaz</a></li>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Places</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="The_Doughnut" title="The Doughnut">The Doughnut</a></li>

<li><a href="Fort_Meade" title="Fort Meade">Fort Meade</a></li>

<li><a href="RAF_Menwith_Hill" title="RAF Menwith Hill">Menwith Hill</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Cross_Cable#Spying_and_interception" title="Southern Cross Cable">Southern Cross Cable</a></li>

<li><a href="Utah_Data_Center" title="Utah Data Center">Utah Data Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Bad_Aibling_Station" title="Bad Aibling Station">Bad Aibling Station</a></li>

<li><a href="Dagger_Complex" title="Dagger Complex">Dagger Complex</a></li>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Laws</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li>Five Eyes

<ul><li><a href="UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Lustre_(treaty)" title="Lustre (treaty)">Lustre</a></li></ul></li>

<li>U.S.

<ul><li><a href="USA_Freedom_Act" title="USA Freedom Act">USA Freedom Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act_of_1978_Amendments_Act_of_2008" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 Amendments Act of 2008">FISA amendments</a></li></ul></li>

<li>EU

<ul><li><a href="Data_Retention_Directive" title="Data Retention Directive">Data Retention Directive</a></li>

<li>China

<ul><li><a href="National_Intelligence_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="National Intelligence Law">National Intelligence Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybersecurity_Law_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China" title="Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China">Cybersecurity Law</a></li></ul></li>

<li>UK

<ul><li><a href="Investigatory_Powers_Act_2016" title="Investigatory Powers Act 2016">Investigatory Powers Act 2016</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Proposed changes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li>U.S.

<ul><li><a href="FISA_Improvements_Act" title="FISA Improvements Act">FISA Improvements Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposed_reforms_of_mass_surveillance_by_the_United_States" title="Proposed reforms of mass surveillance by the United States">Other proposals</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">Mass surveillance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Corporate_surveillance" title="Corporate surveillance">Corporate</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_surveillance_industry" title="Mass surveillance industry">Industry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Culture_of_fear" title="Culture of fear">Culture of fear</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_communication" title="Secure communication">Secure communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_sector_governance_and_reform" title="Security sector governance and reform">Security sector governance and reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Signals_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">SIGINT</a></li>

<li><a href="Call_detail_record" title="Call detail record">Call detail record</a></li>

<li><a href="Surveillance_issues_in_smart_cities" title="Surveillance issues in smart cities">Surveillance issues in smart cities</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#B2BEB5">

Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Intelligence_field" title="Intelligence field">Intelligence field</a></li>

<li><a href="Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence_agency" title="Intelligence agency">Intelligence agency</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a>

<ul><li><a href="Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Liberty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Satellites</a></li>

<li><a href="Stop_Watching_Us" title="Stop Watching Us">Stop Watching Us</a></li>

<li><a href="Nothing_to_hide_argument" title="Nothing to hide argument">Nothing to hide argument</a></li></ul></td>

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<p>The <b>Data Protection Directive,</b> officially Directive 95/46/EC, enacted in October 1995, was a <a href="European_Union_directive" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union directive">European Union directive</a> which regulated the processing of <a href="Personal_data" title="Personal data">personal data</a> within the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) and the free movement of such data. The Data Protection Directive was an important component of EU <a href="Privacy_law" title="Privacy law">privacy</a> and <a href="Human_rights_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights law">human rights law</a>.

</p><p>The principles set out in the Data Protection Directive were aimed at the protection of <a href="Fundamental_rights" title="Fundamental rights">fundamental rights</a> and freedoms in the processing of personal data.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">General Data Protection Regulation</a>, adopted in April 2016, superseded the Data Protection Directive and became enforceable on 25 May 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackmerGDPR16-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Context">Context</h2></div>

<p>The right to <a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a> is a highly developed area of law in Europe. All the member states of the <a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> (CoE) are also signatories of the <a href="European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> (ECHR).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article 8 of the ECHR provides a right to respect for one's "private and family life, his home and his correspondence", subject to certain restrictions. The <a href="European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> has given this article a very broad interpretation in its jurisprudence.

</p><p>In 1973, American scholar <a href="Willis_Ware" title="Willis Ware">Willis Ware</a> published <i>Records, Computers, and the Rights of Citizens</i>, a report that was to be influential on the directions these laws would take.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1980, in an effort to create a comprehensive data protection system throughout Europe, the <a href="Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD) issued its "Recommendations of the Council Concerning Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Trans-Border Flows of Personal Data".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seven principles governing the <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>'s recommendations for protection of personal data were:

</p>

<ol><li>Notice—data subjects should be given notice when their data is being collected;</li>

<li>Purpose—data should only be used for the purpose stated and not for any other purposes;</li>

<li>Consent—data should not be disclosed without the data subject's consent;</li>

<li>Security—collected data should be kept secure from any potential abuses;</li>

<li>Disclosure—data subjects should be informed as to who is collecting their data;</li>

<li>Access—data subjects should be allowed to access their data and make corrections to any inaccurate data</li>

<li>Accountability—data subjects should have a method available to them to hold data collectors accountable for not following the above principles.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<p>The <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> Guidelines, however, were non-binding, and <a href="Data_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Data privacy">data privacy</a> laws still varied widely across Europe. The United States, meanwhile, while endorsing the <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>'s recommendations, did nothing to implement them within the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the first six principles were incorporated into the EU Directive.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1981, the Members States of the <a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> adopted the <a href="Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Individuals_with_regard_to_Automatic_Processing_of_Personal_Data" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data">Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data</a> (Convention 108) to implement Article 8 of the ECHR. Convention 108 obliges the signatories to enact legislation concerning the automatic processing of personal data, and was modernised and reinforced in 2018 to become "Convention 108+".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1989 with German reunification, the data the East German secret police (<a href="Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>) collected became well known, increasing the demand for privacy in Germany. At the time West Germany already had privacy laws since 1977 (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Bundesdatenschutzgesetz" title="Bundesdatenschutzgesetz">Bundesdatenschutzgesetz</a></i></span>). The <a href="European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> realized that diverging data protection legislation amongst EU member states impeded the free flow of data within the EU and accordingly proposed the Data Protection Directive.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Content">Content</h2></div>

<p>The directive regulates the processing of personal data regardless of whether such processing is automated or not.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope">Scope</h3></div>

<p><i>Personal data</i> are defined as "any information relating to an identified or identifiable <a href="Natural_person" title="Natural person">natural person</a> ('data subject'); an identifiable person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to his physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social identity" (art. 2 a).

</p><p>This definition is meant to be very broad. Data are "personal data" when someone is able to link the information to a person, even if the person holding the data cannot make this link. Some examples of "personal data" are: address, <a href="Payment_card_number" title="Payment card number">credit card number</a>, bank statements, criminal record, etc.

</p><p>The notion <i>processing</i> means "any operation or set of operations which is performed upon personal data, whether or not by automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission, dissemination or otherwise making available, alignment or combination, blocking, erasure or destruction" (art. 2 b).

</p><p>The responsibility for compliance rests on the shoulders of the "controller", meaning the <a href="Natural_person" title="Natural person">natural</a> or <a href="Juristic_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Juristic person">artificial person</a>, public authority, agency or any other body which alone or jointly with others determines the purposes and means of the processing of personal data (art. 2 d).

</p><p>The data protection rules are applicable not only when the controller is established within the EU, but whenever the controller uses equipment situated within the EU in order to process data. (art. 4) Controllers from outside the EU, processing data in the EU, will have to follow data protection regulation. In principle, any online business trading with EU residents would process some personal data and would be using equipment in the EU to process the data (i.e. the customer's computer). As a consequence, the website operator would have to comply with the European data protection rules. The directive was written before the breakthrough of the Internet, and to date there is little <a href="Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> on this subject.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principles">Principles</h3></div>

<p>Personal data should not be processed at all, except when certain conditions are met. These conditions fall into three categories: transparency, legitimate purpose, and proportionality.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transparency">Transparency</h4></div>

<p>The data subject has the right to be informed when his personal data is being processed. The controller must provide his name and address, the purpose of processing, the recipients of the data and all other information required to ensure the processing is fair. (art. 10 and 11)

</p><p>Data may be processed only if at least one of the following is true (art. 7):

</p>

<ul><li>when the data subject has given his consent.</li>

<li>when the processing is necessary for the performance of or the entering into a contract.</li>

<li>when processing is necessary for compliance with a legal obligation.</li>

<li>when processing is necessary in order to protect the vital interests of the data subject.</li>

<li>processing is necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the <a href="Public_interest" title="Public interest">public interest</a> or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller or in a third party to whom the data are disclosed.</li>

<li>processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the controller or by the third party or parties to whom the data are disclosed, except where such interests are over-ridden by the interests for fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject. The data subject has the right to access all data processed about him. The data subject even has the right to demand the rectification, deletion or blocking of data that is incomplete, inaccurate or not being processed in compliance with the data protection rules. (art. 12)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legitimate_purpose">Legitimate purpose</h4></div>

<p>Personal data can only be processed for specified explicit and legitimate purposes and may not be processed further in a way incompatible with those purposes. (art. 6 b) The personal data must have protection from misuse and respect for the "certain rights of the data owners which are guaranteed by EU law".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proportionality">Proportionality</h4></div>

<p>Personal data may be processed only insofar as it is adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purposes for which they are collected and/or further processed.

The data must be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date; every reasonable step must be taken to ensure that data which are inaccurate or incomplete, having regard to the purposes for which they were collected or for which they are further processed, are erased or rectified;

The data shouldn't be kept in a form which permits identification of data subjects for longer than is necessary for the purposes for which the data were collected or for which they are further processed. Member States shall lay down appropriate safeguards for personal data stored for longer periods for historical, statistical or scientific use. (art. 6).

</p><p>When sensitive personal data (can be: religious beliefs, political opinions, health, sexual orientation, race, membership of past organisations) are being processed, extra restrictions apply. (art. 8).

</p><p>The data subject may object at any time to the processing of personal data for the purpose of direct marketing. (art. 14)

</p><p>An algorithmic-based decision which produces legal effects or significantly affects the data subject may not be based solely on automated processing of data. (art. 15) A form of appeal should be provided when automatic decision making processes are used.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supervisory_authority_and_the_public_register_of_processing_operations">Supervisory authority and the public register of processing operations</h3></div>

<p>Each member state must set up a supervisory authority, an independent body that will monitor the data protection level in that member state, give advice to the government about administrative measures and regulations, and start legal proceedings when data protection regulation has been violated. (art. 28) Individuals may lodge complaints about violations to the supervisory authority or in a court of law.

</p><p>The controller must notify the supervisory authority before he starts to process data. The notification contains at least the following information (art. 19):

</p>

<ul><li>the name and address of the controller and of his representative, if any;</li>

<li>the purpose or purposes of the processing;</li>

<li>a description of the category or categories of data subject and of the data or categories of data relating to them;</li>

<li>the recipients or categories of recipient to whom the data might be disclosed;</li>

<li>proposed transfers of data to third countries;</li>

<li>a general description of the measures taken to ensure security of processing.</li></ul>

<p>This information is kept in a public register.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transfer_of_personal_data_to_third_countries">Transfer of personal data to third countries</h3></div>

<p><i>Third countries</i> is the term used in legislation to designate countries outside the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.

Personal data may only be transferred to a third country if that country provides an adequate level of protection of the data. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller himself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.

</p><p>The Directive's Article 29 created the "Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data", commonly known as the "<a href="Article_29_Working_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 29 Working Party">Article 29 Working Party</a>". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries.

</p><p>The Working Party negotiated with United States representatives about the protection of personal data, the <a href="International_Safe_Harbor_Privacy_Principles" title="International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles">Safe Harbour Principles</a> were the result. According to critics the Safe Harbour Principles do not provide for an adequate level of protection, because they contain fewer obligations for the controller and allow the contractual waiver of certain rights.

</p><p>In October 2015 the European Court of Justice ruled that the Safe Harbour regime was invalid as a result of an action brought by an Austrian privacy campaigner in relation to the export of subscribers' data by Facebook's European business to Facebook in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US and European Authorities worked on a replacement for Safe Harbour and an agreement was reached in February 2016, leading to the European Commission adopting the <a href="EU%E2%80%93US_Privacy_Shield" title="EU–US Privacy Shield">EU–US Privacy Shield</a> framework on 12 July 2016. This was likewise found invalid in 2020 and replaced with the <a href="EU%E2%80%93US_Data_Privacy_Framework" title="EU–US Data Privacy Framework">EU–US Data Privacy Framework</a> in 2023.

</p><p>In July 2007, a new, controversial,<sup id="cite_ref-R89_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Passenger_name_record" title="Passenger name record">passenger name record</a> (PNR) agreement between the US and the EU was undersigned.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In February 2008, <a href="Jonathan_Faull" title="Jonathan Faull">Jonathan Faull</a>, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the United States bilateral policy concerning PNR.<sup id="cite_ref-Faull_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faull-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (MOU) with the <a href="Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without first consulting Brussels.<sup id="cite_ref-R89_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R89-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by the lower level of <a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">data protection</a> in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US <a href="Privacy_Act_of_1974" title="Privacy Act of 1974">Privacy Act of 1974</a>. Other countries approached for bilateral Memoranda of Understanding included the United Kingdom, <a href="Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, (Germany) and <a href="Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation_by_the_member_states">Implementation by the member states</h2></div>

<p>EU directives are addressed to the member states, and are not legally binding for individuals in principle. The member states must transpose the directive into internal law.

Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal data had to be transposed by the end of 1998. All member states had enacted their own data protection legislation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Replacement_by_the_General_Data_Protection_Regulation">Replacement by the General Data Protection Regulation</h2></div>

<p>On 25 January 2012, the <a href="European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> (EC) announced it would be unifying data protection law across a unified European Union via legislation called the "<a href="General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">General Data Protection Regulation</a>." The EC's objectives with this legislation included:<sup id="cite_ref-MLGNew12_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLGNew12-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>the harmonisation of 27 national data protection regulations into one unified regulation;</li>

<li>the improvement of corporate data transfer rules outside the European Union; and</li>

<li>the improvement of user control over personal identifying data.</li></ul>

<p>The original proposal also dictated that the legislation would in theory "apply for all non-EU companies without any establishment in the EU, provided that the processing of data is directed at EU residents," one of the biggest changes with the new legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-MLGNew12_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLGNew12-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change carried on through to the legislation's final approval on 14 April 2016, affecting entities around the world. "The Regulation applies to processing outside the EU that relates to the offering of goods or services to data subjects (individuals) in the EU or the monitoring of their behavior," according to W. Scott Blackmer of the InfoLawGroup, though he added "[i]t is questionable whether European supervisory authorities or consumers would actually try to sue US-based operators over violations of the Regulation."<sup id="cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackmerGDPR16-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional changes include stricter conditions for consent, broader definition of sensitive data, new provisions on protecting children's privacy, and the inclusion of "rights to be forgotten."<sup id="cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackmerGDPR16-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The EC then set a compliance date of 25 May 2018, giving businesses around the world a chance to prepare for compliance, review data protection language in contracts, consider transition to international standards, update <a href="Privacy_policy" title="Privacy policy">privacy policies</a>, and review marketing plans.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_other_jurisdictions">Comparison with other jurisdictions</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_United_States_data_protection_law">Comparison with United States data protection law</h3></div>

<p>As of 2003, the United States has no single data protection law comparable to the EU's Data Protection Directive.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>United States privacy legislation tends to be adopted on an <i>ad hoc</i> basis, with legislation arising when certain sectors and circumstances require (e.g., the <a href="Video_Privacy_Protection_Act" title="Video Privacy Protection Act">Video Privacy Protection Act</a> of 1988, the <a href="Cable_Television_Protection_and_Competition_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable Television Protection and Competition Act">Cable Television Protection and Competition Act</a> of 1992,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act" title="Fair Credit Reporting Act">Fair Credit Reporting Act</a>, and the 1996 <a href="Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</a>, HIPAA (US)). Therefore, while certain sectors may already satisfy parts of the EU Directive most do not.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States prefers what it calls a 'sectoral' approach<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to data protection legislation, which relies on a combination of legislation, regulation, and self-regulation, rather than governmental regulation alone.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former US President <a href="Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and former Vice-President <a href="Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> explicitly recommended in their "Framework for Global Electronic Commerce" that the private sector should lead, and companies should implement self-regulation in reaction to issues brought on by Internet technology.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The reasoning behind this approach has as much to do with American <a href="Laissez-faire_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire economics">laissez-faire economics</a> as with different social perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> of the <a href="United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> guarantees the right to free speech.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While free speech is an explicit right guaranteed by the United States Constitution, privacy is an implicit right guaranteed by the Constitution as interpreted by the <a href="United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it is often an explicit right in many state constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Europe's extensive privacy regulation is justified with reference to experiences under <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>-era fascist governments and post-War <a href="Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">Communist</a> regimes, where there was widespread unchecked use of personal information.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World War II and the post-War period was a time in Europe when disclosure of race or ethnicity led to secret denunciations and seizures that sent friends and neighbours to work camps and concentration camps.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the age of computers, Europeans' guardedness of secret government files has translated into a distrust of corporate databases, and governments in Europe took decided steps to protect personal information from abuses in the years following World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Germany) and France, in particular, set forth comprehensive data protection laws.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Critics of Europe's data policies, however, have said that they have impeded Europe's ability to monetize the data of users on the internet and are the primary reason why there are no <a href="Big_Tech" title="Big Tech">Big Tech</a> companies in Europe, with most of them instead being in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, with <a href="Alibaba_Group" title="Alibaba Group">Alibaba</a> and <a href="Tencent" title="Tencent">Tencent</a> joining the ranks of the world's 10 most valuable tech companies in recent years,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even China is moving ahead of Europe in the performance of its digital economy,<sup id="cite_ref-auto_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was valued at $5.09 trillion in 2019 (35.8 trillion yuan).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Meanwhile, Europe's preoccupation with the US is likely misplaced in the first place, as China and Russia are increasingly identified by European policymakers as "hybrid threat" aggressors, using a combination of <a href="Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> on social media and hacking to intentionally undermine the functioning of European institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Auditing_information_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditing information security">Auditing information security</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_governance" title="Data governance">Data governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Protection_Act_1998" title="Data Protection Act 1998">Data Protection Act 1998</a> UK, <a href="Data_Protection_(Jersey)_Law" title="Data Protection (Jersey) Law">Data Protection (Jersey) Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_Privacy_and_Electronic_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications">Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="EPrivacy_Regulation" title="EPrivacy Regulation">ePrivacy Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Commissioner">Information Commissioner</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">Information privacy</a> (data protection)</li>

<li><a href="Information_technology_audit" title="Information technology audit">Information technology audit</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Safe_Harbor_Privacy_Principles" title="International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles">International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles</a></li>

<li><a href="National_data_protection_authorities" class="mw-redirect" title="National data protection authorities">National data protection authorities</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Data_Privacy_and_Security_Act_of_2009" title="Personal Data Privacy and Security Act of 2009">Personal Data Privacy and Security Act of 2009</a></li>

<li><a href="Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">Safe harbour</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2020" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Wendy (2020). <i>Data Privacy Law: A Practical Guide</i> (Third ed.). G. E. Kennedy & L. S. P. Prabhu. p. 45. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9995127-4-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-BlackmerGDPR16-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlackmerGDPR16_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmer,_W.S.2016" class="citation web cs1">Blackmer, W.S. (5 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514111300/https://www.infolawgroup.com/2016/05/articles/gdpr/gdpr-getting-ready-for-the-new-eu-general-data-protection-regulation/">"GDPR: Getting Ready for the New EU General Data Protection Regulation"</a>. <i>Information Law Group</i>. InfoLawGroup LLP. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infolawgroup.com/2016/05/articles/gdpr/gdpr-getting-ready-for-the-new-eu-general-data-protection-regulation/">the original</a> on 14 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_External_Action_Service" class="citation web cs1">European External Action Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/council-europe/79840/eu-accession-european-convention-human-rights_en">"EU accession to the European Convention on Human Rights"</a>. European Commission<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPfleegerPfleegerMargulies2015" class="citation book cs1">Pfleeger, Charles P.; Pfleeger, Shari Lawrence; Margulies, Jonathan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150714212735/http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/9780134085043/samplepages/9780134085043.pdf"><i>Security in Computing</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Pearson Education. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-408504-3</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/9780134085043/samplepages/9780134085043.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2020</span>. <q>Few people recognize Willis [Ware]'s name today; more people are familiar with the European Union Data Protection Directive that is a direct descendant of the report from his committee for the U.S. Department of Human Services. Willis would have wanted it that way: the emphasis on the ideas and not on his name.</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWare2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Willis_Ware" title="Willis Ware">Ware, Willis H.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/corporate_pubs/2008/RAND_CP537.pdf"><i>RAND and the information evolution: a history in essays and vignettes</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. RAND Corporation. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8330-4513-3</bdi>. <q><a href="United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare</a> <a href="Elliot_Richardson" title="Elliot Richardson">Elliot Richardson</a> had become concerned about the vast amount of personal data that the government held about its citizens. ... He impaneled the Secretary's Advisory Committee on Automated Personal Data Systems to examine the issue and solicited the participation of Willis Ware (who had just completed his tenure with the DSB security activity) as an individual knowledgeable about system security... Ware became chair of the committee that he described to a colleague as 'the most politically balanced group I've worked with. We had young v. mature people, ethnicities of all kinds, lawyers v. non-lawyers, experts v. lay persons, male v. female, politically active individuals v. politically passive ones.' [In] 1972, the committee report was delivered... [It] achieved several significant goals: <div><ul><li>It conceived and defined the Code of Fair Information Practices, which <b>has become the foundation for personal-information privacy law and privacy doctrine in the United States and worldwide (e.g., the European Union position)</b>.</li><li>The Code set the relationship—one might call it the rules of engagement—between (1) the organizations collecting personal information and the data systems that held it and (2) the individual citizen about whom the personal data had been assembled.</li><li>It provided the intellectual basis for the <a href="Privacy_Act_of_1974" title="Privacy Act of 1974">Privacy Act of 1974</a>, which, in turn, set the framework for other law.; It created the Privacy Protection Study Commission (PPSC).</li></ul></div></q></cite> [emphasis added]</span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/document/18/0,2340,en_2649_34255_1815186_1_1_1_1,00.html">Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data</a> The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, last modified 5 January 1999.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShimanek2001" class="citation journal cs1">Shimanek, Anna E. (2001). "Do you Want Milk with those Cookies?: Complying with Safe Harbor Privacy Principles". <i>Journal of Corporation Law</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 455, <span class="nowrap">462–</span>463.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/28-january-data-protection-day-factsheet">"Modernisation of the Data Protection 'Convention 108'"</a>. Council of Europe<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/">"Protection of personal data"</a>. European Commission.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=169195&pageIndex=0&doclang=EN&mode=req&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=162892">"Judgement of the Court (Grand Chamber) – 6 October 2015"</a>. <i>InfoCuria</i>. 6 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-R89-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-R89_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-R89_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rue89.com/2008/03/04/a-divided-europe-wants-to-protect-its-personal-data-wanted-by-the-us">"A divided Europe wants to protect its personal data wanted by the U.S."</a> <i><a href="Rue_89" class="mw-redirect" title="Rue 89">Rue 89</a></i>. 4 March 2008.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112021643/http://www.libertysecurity.org/article1591.html">"New EU-US PNR Agreement on the processing and transfer of Passenger Name Record (PNR) data"</a>. <i>Liberty & Security</i>. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Faull-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Faull_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Renata Goldirova (14 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://euobserver.com/9/25657">"Brussels attacks new U.S. security demands"</a>. <i><a href="EUobserver" title="EUobserver">EUobserver</a></i>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statewatch.org/news/">Statewatch newsletter</a>, February 2008</span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statewatch.org/news/2008/mar/us-czech-mou-visas-etc.pdf">"Memorandum of Understanding Between the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic and the Department of Homeland Security of the United States of America Regarding the United States Visa Waiver Program and Related Enhanced Security Measures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>State Watch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="Statewatch" title="Statewatch">Statewatch</a></i>, March 2008</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-MLGNew12-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MLGNew12_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MLGNew12_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160325215842/http://mlawgroup.de/news/publications/detail.php?we_objectID=227">"New draft European data protection regime"</a>. m law group. 2 February 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlawgroup.de/news/publications/detail.php?we_objectID=227">the original</a> on 25 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Julia M. Fromholz, The European Union Data Privacy Directive, 15 Berkeley Tech. L.J. 471, 472 (2000); Dean William Harvey & Amy White, The Impact of Computer Security Regulation on American Companies, 8 Tex. Wesleyan L. Rev. 505 (2002); Kamaal Zaidi, Harmonizing U.S.-EU Online Privacy Law: Toward a U.S. Comprehensive Regime For the Protection of Personal Data, 12 Mich.St. J. Int'l L. 169 (2003).</span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLegislation1992" class="citation web cs1">Legislation, USA (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/OSEC/library/legislative_histories/1439.pdf">"CABLE TELEVISION CONSUMER PROTECTION AND COMPETITION ACT OF 1992"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fromholz, supra</span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2011" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Ian J. (2011). <i>Information technology law</i> (6th ed.). Oxford [etc.]: Oxford University Press. p. 26. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0199588749</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFClintonGore_Jr.1997" class="citation web cs1">Clinton, William J.; Gore Jr., Albert (1 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061221114651/http://www.technology.gov/digeconomy/framewrk.htm">"A Framework for Global Electronic Commerce"</a>. <i>technology.gov</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technology.gov/digeconomy/framewrk.htm">the original</a> on 21 December 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2006</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFR.2018" class="citation journal cs1">R., Schriver, Robert (20 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol70/iss6/29/">"You Cheated, You Lied: The Safe Harbor Agreement and its Enforcement by the Federal Trade Commission"</a>. <i>Fordham Law Review</i>. <b>70</b> (6).</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clinton & Gore, supra</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFatema2016" class="citation conference cs1">Fatema, K. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190410065222/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=7517741&punumber=7517741">"A Semi-Automated Methodology for Extracting Access Control Rules from the European Data Protection Directive"</a>. <i>2016 IEEE Security and Privacy Workshops</i>. IEEE Computer Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=7517741&punumber=7517741">the original</a> on 10 April 2019.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States Const. amend. I.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, <a href="Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a>, 410 US 113 (1973)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Article 1 of the <a href="California_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="California Constitution">California Constitution</a>: "All people are by nature free and independent and have inalienable rights. Among these are … privacy."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/text37&div=19&id=&page=">Ryan Moshell, <i>...And Then There was one: The Outlook for a Self-Regulatory United States Amidst a Global Trend Toward Comprehensive Data Protection</i>, 37 Tex. Tech. L. Rev. 357, 358</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/knacht-bio.htm">"The History Place – World War II in Europe Timeline: November 9/10 1938 – Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass"</a>. <i>historyplace.com</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKotzker" class="citation journal cs1">Kotzker, Jason A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/stlr15&div=27&id=&page=">"The Great Cookie Caper: Internet Privacy and Target Marketing at Home and Abroad Notes & Comments 15"</a>. <i>St. Thomas Law Review</i>. <b>15</b>. St. Thomas Law Review 2002–2003: 727.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsha Cope Huie, Stephen F. Laribee & Stephen D. Hogan, The Right to Privacy and Person Data: The EU Prods the U.S. and Controversy Continues, 9 Tulsa J. Comp. & Int'l L. 391, 441 (2002)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at footnote 4.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpomagazine.com/data-privacy/fuzzy-anonymity-rules-could-stymie-eus-big-data-sharing-ideas/">"Fuzzy Anonymity Rules Could Stymie EU's Big Data Sharing Ideas"</a>. <i>CPO Magazine</i>. 1 May 2020.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.todayonline.com/world/beijings-battle-control-its-homegrown-tech-giants">"Beijing's battle to control its homegrown tech giants"</a>. <i>TODAYonline</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-auto-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/der2019_overview_en.pdf">"DIGITAL ECONOMY REPORT 2019: VALUE CREATION AND CAPTURE: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>unctad.org</i>. 4 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027024155/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-07/03/c_139186711.htm#:~:text=SHANGHAI,%20July%203%20(Xinhua),China%20Academy%20of%20Information%20and">"Value-added of China's digital economy totals 5 trillion USD in 2019: white paper - Xinhua | English.news.cn"</a>. <i>www.xinhuanet.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-07/03/c_139186711.htm#:~:text=SHANGHAI,%20July%203%20(Xinhua),China%20Academy%20of%20Information%20and">the original</a> on 27 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-vows-tougher-response-on-hybrid-threats-hacking-misinformation-cyberattacks/">"EU vows tougher response on hybrid threats"</a>. <i>POLITICO</i>. 24 July 2020.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31995L0046">Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-topic/data-protection_en">EU data protection page</a>. The European Commission provides elaborate information on its website. The following subjects are covered:

<ul><li>Legislative documents</li>

<li>Transposition and implementation of Directive 95/46/EC</li>

<li>European Data Protection Supervisor</li>

<li>National Data Protection Commissioners</li>

<li>Art. 29 Data protection Working Party</li>

<li>Adequacy of protection in third countries and model contracts for the transfer of personal data to third countries</li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02000D0520-20000825">2000/520/EC: Commission Decision of 26 July 2000 pursuant to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the adequacy of the protection provided by the safe harbour privacy principles and related frequently asked questions issued by the US Department of Commerce (notified under document number C(2000) 2441)</a> (Safe harbour principle)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02002L0058-20091219">Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2002 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector</a> (Directive on privacy and electronic communications)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/HIS/?uri=CELEX:52012AE1303">Procedure 2012/0011/COD</a> Procedure for the proposed revised legal framework (<a href="General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">General Data Protection Regulation</a>)</li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Privacy271" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Privacy271" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Right_of_access_to_personal_data" title="Right of access to personal data">Right of access to personal data</a></li>

<li><a href="Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">Expectation of privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_be_forgotten" title="Right to be forgotten">Right to be forgotten</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-mortem_privacy" title="Post-mortem privacy">Post-mortem privacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Privacy_law" title="Privacy law">Privacy laws</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Privacy_in_Australian_law" title="Privacy in Australian law">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="General_Personal_Data_Protection_Law" title="General Personal Data Protection Law">Brazil</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_privacy_law" title="Canadian privacy law">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Information_Protection_Law_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China" title="Personal Information Protection Law of the People's Republic of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_law_in_Denmark" title="Privacy law in Denmark">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_in_English_law" title="Privacy in English law">England</a></li>

<li><a href="General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Bundesdatenschutzgesetz" title="Bundesdatenschutzgesetz">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Protection_Act%2C_2012" title="Data Protection Act, 2012">Ghana</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_privacy_in_New_Zealand" title="Right to privacy in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_protection_(privacy)_laws_in_Russia" title="Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Data_Protection_Act_2012_(Singapore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)">Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Data_Protection_Act_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Personal Data Protection Act (Sri Lanka)">Sri Lanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner" title="Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner">Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_laws_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy laws of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="California_Consumer_Privacy_Act" title="California Consumer Privacy Act">California</a>, <a href="California_Privacy_Rights_Act" title="California Privacy Rights Act">amended in 2020</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="National_data_protection_authority" title="National data protection authority">Data protection authorities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Office_of_the_Australian_Information_Commissioner" title="Office of the Australian Information Commissioner">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Danish_Data_Protection_Agency" title="Danish Data Protection Agency">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Data_Protection_Supervisor" title="European Data Protection Supervisor">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Commission_nationale_de_l'informatique_et_des_libert%C3%A9s" title="Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_Commissioner_for_Data_Protection_and_Freedom_of_Information" title="Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Protection_Board_of_India" title="Data Protection Board of India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Data_Protection_Authority_Institute" title="Personal Data Protection Authority Institute">Indonesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Protection_Commissioner" title="Data Protection Commissioner">Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Dutch_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Dutch Data Protection Authority">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Norwegian_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Norwegian Data Protection Authority">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Privacy_Commission" title="National Privacy Commission">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish_Data_Protection_Commissioner" title="Polish Data Protection Commissioner">Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_Information_Protection_Commission_(South_Korea)" title="Personal Information Protection Commission (South Korea)">South Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_Data_Protection_Agency" title="Spanish Data Protection Agency">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Swedish_Data_Protection_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Data Protection Authority">Sweden</a></li>

<li><a href="Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner" title="Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner">Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="Office_of_the_Personal_Data_Protection_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the Personal Data Protection Committee">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Turkish Data Protection Authority">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_Commissioner's_Office" title="Information Commissioner's Office">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consumer_privacy" title="Consumer privacy">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_privacy" title="Digital privacy">Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_in_education" title="Privacy in education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_privacy" title="Medical privacy">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Workplace_privacy" title="Workplace privacy">Workplace</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">Information privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automotive_privacy" title="Automotive privacy">Automotive</a></li>

<li><a href="Bank_secrecy" title="Bank secrecy">Financial</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet</a>

<ul><li><a href="Privacy_concerns_with_Facebook" title="Privacy concerns with Facebook">Facebook</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_concerns_regarding_Google" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy concerns regarding Google">Google</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_concerns_with_Twitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy concerns with Twitter">Twitter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Email_privacy" title="Email privacy">Email</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_data" title="Personal data">Personal data</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">Personal identifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_concerns_with_social_networking_services" title="Privacy concerns with social networking services">Social networking services</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy-enhancing_technologies" title="Privacy-enhancing technologies">Privacy-enhancing technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy-invasive_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy-invasive software">Privacy-invasive software</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_policy" title="Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_software" title="Privacy software">Privacy software</a></li>

<li><a href="Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_assistant_privacy" title="Virtual assistant privacy">Virtual assistant privacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology" title="Center for Democracy and Technology">Center for Democracy and Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_Professionals_for_Social_Responsibility" title="Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility">Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Privacy_Lab" title="Data Privacy Lab">Data Privacy Lab</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_Privacy_Information_Center" title="Electronic Privacy Information Center">Electronic Privacy Information Center</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Digital_Rights" title="European Digital Rights">European Digital Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Future_of_Privacy_Forum" title="Future of Privacy Forum">Future of Privacy Forum</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_Network_Initiative" title="Global Network Initiative">Global Network Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Association_of_Privacy_Professionals" title="International Association of Privacy Professionals">International Association of Privacy Professionals</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_International" title="Privacy International">Privacy International</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellphone_surveillance" title="Cellphone surveillance">Cellphone surveillance</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a></li>

<li><a href="Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_surveillance" title="Global surveillance">Global surveillance</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">Identity theft</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">Mass surveillance</a></li>

<li><a href="Panopticon" title="Panopticon">Panopticon</a></li>

<li><a href="PRISM" title="PRISM">PRISM</a></li>

<li><a href="Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">Search warrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiretapping" title="Wiretapping">Wiretapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_rights" title="Personality rights">Personality rights</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911488#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata671" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911488#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata671" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/186015200">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4468394-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n98071840">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007601546805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=European_Union&#124;link=European_Union_Judiciary_and_law_of_the_European_Union624" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=European_Union&#124;link=European_Union_Judiciary_and_law_of_the_European_Union624" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="European_Union" title="European Union"></a></span></span></span> <a href="European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">Judiciary and law of the European Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Judiciary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union" title="Court of Justice of the European Union">Court of Justice of the European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_members_of_the_European_Court_of_Justice" title="List of members of the European Court of Justice">members</a></li>

<li><a href="Advocate_general_(European_Union)" title="Advocate general (European Union)">Advocates General</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="General_Court_(European_Union)" title="General Court (European Union)">General Court</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Civil_Service_Tribunal" title="European Union Civil Service Tribunal">Civil Service Tribunal</a></li>

<li><a href="European_lawyer" title="European lawyer">European lawyer</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_and_the_European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Union and the European Convention on Human Rights">Relationship with ECHR</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Public_Prosecutor's_Office" title="European Public Prosecutor's Office">Public Prosecutor</a></li>

<li><a href="European_civil_code" title="European civil code">European civil code</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Treaties_of_the_European_Union" title="Treaties of the European Union">Treaties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Treaty_of_Rome" title="Treaty of Rome">Rome Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Merger_Treaty" title="Merger Treaty">Merger Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Single_European_Act" title="Single European Act">Single European Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Maastricht Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_of_Amsterdam" title="Treaty of Amsterdam">Amsterdam Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_of_Nice" title="Treaty of Nice">Nice Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_of_Lisbon" title="Treaty of Lisbon">Lisbon Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union">Charter of Fundamental Rights</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Legal_Act_of_the_European_Union" title="Legal Act of the European Union">Acts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acquis_communautaire" title="Acquis communautaire">Acquis</a>: <a href="Regulation_(European_Union)" title="Regulation (European Union)">Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_(European_Union)" title="Directive (European Union)">Directive</a>

<ul><li><a href="Framework_Directive_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Framework Directive (disambiguation)">Framework Directive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Decision_(European_Union)" title="Decision (European Union)">Decision</a></li>

<li><a href="Recommendation_(European_Union)" title="Recommendation (European Union)">Recommendation</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_Services_Act" title="Digital Services Act">Digital Services Act</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Union_legislative_procedure#Ordinary_legislative_procedure" title="European Union legislative procedure">Ordinary legislative procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Consultation_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultation procedure">Consultation procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Consent_procedure" title="Consent procedure">Consent procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_legislative_procedure#Commission_and_Council_acting_alone" title="European Union legislative procedure">Commission and Council acting alone</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_legislative_procedure#Commission_acting_alone" title="European Union legislative procedure">Commission acting alone</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="General_principles_of_European_Union_law" title="General principles of European Union law">Principles</a><br>and terms</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acquis_communautaire" title="Acquis communautaire">Acquis communautaire</a>

<li><a href="Direct_applicability" title="Direct applicability">Direct applicability</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_effect_of_European_Union_law" title="Direct effect of European Union law">Direct effect</a></li>

<li><a href="European_labour_law" title="European labour law">European labour law</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Enforcement_Order" title="European Enforcement Order">European Enforcement Order</a></li>

<li><a href="Gold-plating_(European_Union_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold-plating (European Union law)">Gold-plating</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Single_Market" class="mw-redirect" title="European Single Market">Four freedoms</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_state_regulation" title="Home state regulation">Home state regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Indirect_effect" title="Indirect effect">Indirect effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Incidental_effect" title="Incidental effect">Incidental effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimum_harmonisation" title="Minimum harmonisation">Minimum harmonisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximum_harmonisation" title="Maximum harmonisation">Maximum harmonisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Preliminary_ruling" title="Preliminary ruling">Preliminary ruling</a></li>

<li><a href="Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_certainty" title="Legal certainty">Principle of legal certainty</a></li>

<li><a href="Recasting_(EU_Law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recasting (EU Law)">Recasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_conferral" title="Principle of conferral">Principle of conferral</a></li>

<li><a href="Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">Proportionality</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Staatenverbund" title="Staatenverbund">Staatenverbund</a></i></li>

<li><a href="State_liability" title="State liability">State liability</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Primacy_of_European_Union_law" title="Primacy of European Union law">Supremacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evidence_Regulation" title="Evidence Regulation">Council Regulation (EC) No. 1206/2001</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_Regulation" title="Service Regulation">Council Regulation (EC) No. 1348/2000</a></li>

<li><a href="Customs_Regulation_1383/2003" title="Customs Regulation 1383/2003">Customs Regulation 1383/2003</a></li>

<li><a href="Flight_Compensation_Regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight Compensation Regulation">Regulation (EC) No 261/2004</a></li>

<li><a href="EU-Eco-regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="EU-Eco-regulation">EU-Eco-regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Commission_Regulation_(EC)_No._2257/94" title="Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2257/94">Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2257/94</a></li>

<li><a href="Commission_Regulation_(EU)_No._1170/2011" title="Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1170/2011">Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1170/2011</a></li>

<li><a href="Customs_Regulation_3295/94" title="Customs Regulation 3295/94">Customs Regulation 3295/94</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_roaming_regulations" title="European Union roaming regulations">Regulation on roaming charges</a></li>

<li><a href="Brussels_Regime" title="Brussels Regime">Brussels Regime</a></li>

<li><a href="CLP_Regulation" title="CLP Regulation">CLP Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_on_Community_designs" title="Regulation on Community designs">Regulation on Community designs</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Societas_Europaea" title="Societas Europaea">Societas Europaea</a></i></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_System_for_the_Evaluation_of_Substances" title="European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances">European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_air_carriers_banned_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of air carriers banned in the European Union">Commission Regulation (EC) No 474/2006</a></li>

<li><a href="Registration%2C_Evaluation%2C_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals" title="Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals">REACH</a></li>

<li><a href="Rome_II_Regulation" title="Rome II Regulation">Rome II Regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_of_Law_Conditionality_Regulation" title="Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation">Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_European_Union_directives" title="List of European Union directives">Directives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Good_Clinical_Practice_Directive" title="Good Clinical Practice Directive">Good Clinical Practice Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="ATEX_directive" class="mw-redirect" title="ATEX directive">ATEX directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Battery_Directive" title="Battery Directive">Battery Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Best_available_technology" title="Best available technology">Best available technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biocidal_Products_Directive" title="Biocidal Products Directive">Biocidal Products Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Birds_Directive" title="Birds Directive">Birds Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_Requirements_Directives" title="Capital Requirements Directives">Capital Requirements Directives</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_Trials_Directive" title="Clinical Trials Directive">Clinical Trials Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_Programs_Directive" title="Computer Programs Directive">Computer Programs Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Conditional_Access_Directive" title="Conditional Access Directive">Conditional Access Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyright_Duration_Directive" title="Copyright Duration Directive">Copyright Duration Directive (93/98/EEC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyright_Term_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright Term Directive">Copyright Term Directive (2006/116/EC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmetics_Directive" title="Cosmetics Directive">Cosmetics Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_67/548/EEC" title="Directive 67/548/EEC">Dangerous Substances Directive (67/548/EEC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Dangerous_Preparations_Directive" title="Dangerous Preparations Directive">Dangerous Preparations Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_Retention_Directive" title="Data Retention Directive">Data Retention Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Database_Directive" title="Database Directive">Database Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Sui_generis_database_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Sui generis database right">Database right</a></li>

<li><a href="Race_Equality_Directive_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Race Equality Directive 2000">Directive 2000/43/EC on Anti-discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Equality_Framework_Directive_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality Framework Directive 2000">Directive establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_Society_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Society Directive">Information Society Directive</a> (first Copyright directive)</li>

<li><a href="Privacy_and_Electronic_Communications_Directive_2002" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive 2002">Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_the_Promotion_of_the_use_of_biofuels_and_other_renewable_fuels_for_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport">Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_the_re-use_of_public_sector_information" title="Directive on the re-use of public sector information">Directive on the re-use of public sector information</a></li>

<li><a href="EU_Directive_on_Electricity_Production_from_Renewable_Energy_Sources_2001/77/EC" class="mw-redirect" title="EU Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources 2001/77/EC">Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources</a></li>

<li><a href="End_of_Life_Vehicles_Directive" title="End of Life Vehicles Directive">End of Life Vehicles Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="CHP_Directive" title="CHP Directive">CHP Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_the_energy_performance_of_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive on the energy performance of buildings">Directive on the energy performance of buildings</a></li>

<li><a href="Enforcement_Directive" title="Enforcement Directive">Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Citizens%E2%80%99_Rights_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens’ Rights Directive">Directive 2004/38/EC on the right to move and reside freely</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_Liability_Directive_2004" title="Environmental Liability Directive 2004">Environmental liability directive</a></li>

<li><a href="European_SEA_Directive_2001/42/EC" class="mw-redirect" title="European SEA Directive 2001/42/EC">European SEA Directive 2001/42/EC</a></li>

<li><a href="European_units_of_measurement_directives" title="European units of measurement directives">European units of measurement directives</a></li>

<li><a href="Habitats_Directive" title="Habitats Directive">Habitats Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_Pollution_Prevention_and_Control" title="Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control">Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_Market_in_Electricity_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Market in Electricity Directive">Internal Market in Electricity Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Landfill_Directive" title="Landfill Directive">Landfill Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_biotechnological_inventions" title="Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions">Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_designs" title="Directive on the legal protection of designs">Directive on the legal protection of designs</a></li>

<li><a href="Directive_2014/65/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive 2014/65/EU">Markets in Financial Instruments Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Measuring_Instruments_Directive" title="Measuring Instruments Directive">Measuring Instruments Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_Devices_Directive" title="Medical Devices Directive">Medical Devices Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Posted_Workers_Directive_1996" title="Posted Workers Directive 1996">Posted Workers Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Pressure_Equipment_Directive_(EU)" title="Pressure Equipment Directive (EU)">Pressure Equipment Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Rental_Directive" title="Rental Directive">Rental Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Resale_Rights_Directive" title="Resale Rights Directive">Resale Rights Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive">Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_and_Cable_Directive" title="Satellite and Cable Directive">Satellite and Cable Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Services_in_the_Internal_Market_Directive_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006">Directive on services in the internal market</a></li>

<li><a href="Temporary_Agency_Work_Directive_2008" title="Temporary Agency Work Directive 2008">Temporary and Agency Work Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Trade_Marks_Directive" title="Trade Marks Directive">Trade Marks Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Directive_on_Traditional_Herbal_Medicinal_Products" title="European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products">European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products</a></li>

<li><a href="Unfair_Commercial_Practices_Directive_2005" title="Unfair Commercial Practices Directive 2005">Unfair Commercial Practices Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_Service_Directive_2002" title="Universal Service Directive 2002">Universal Service Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_Waste_Water_Treatment_Directive" title="Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive">Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_Electrical_and_Electronic_Equipment_Directive" title="Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive">Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_Incineration_Directive" title="Waste Incineration Directive">Waste Incineration Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_framework_directive" title="Waste framework directive">Waste framework directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_Framework_Directive" title="Water Framework Directive">Water Framework Directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Working_Time_Directive_2003" title="Working Time Directive 2003">Working Time Directive</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_European_Court_of_Justice_rulings" title="List of European Court of Justice rulings">ECJ Rulings</a> (<a href="Caselex" title="Caselex">Caselex</a>): <a href="Allonby_v_Accrington_and_Rossendale_College" title="Allonby v Accrington and Rossendale College">Allonby v Accrington and Rossendale College</a></li>

<li><a href="Apostolides_v_Orams" title="Apostolides v Orams">Apostolides v Orams</a></li>

<li><a href="Bosman_ruling" title="Bosman ruling">Bosman</a></li>

<li><a href="Rewe-Zentral_AG_v_Bundesmonopolverwaltung_f%C3%BCr_Branntwein" title="Rewe-Zentral AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein">Cassis de Dijon</a></li>

<li><a href="Chac%C3%B3n_Navas_v_Eurest_Colectividades_SA" title="Chacón Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA">Chacón Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciar%C3%A1n_Tobin_extradition_case" title="Ciarán Tobin extradition case">Ciarán Tobin</a></li>

<li><a href="Coleman_v_Attridge_Law" title="Coleman v Attridge Law">Coleman v Attridge Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Costa_v_ENEL" title="Costa v ENEL">Costa v ENEL</a></li>

<li><a href="R_(Factortame_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">Factortame</a></li>

<li><a href="Francovich_v_Italy" title="Francovich v Italy">Francovich</a></li>

<li><a href="Kamer_van_Koophandel_en_Fabrieken_voor_Amsterdam_v_Inspire_Art_Ltd" title="Kamer van Koophandel en Fabrieken voor Amsterdam v Inspire Art Ltd">Kamer van Koophandel en Fabrieken voor Amsterdam v Inspire Art Ltd</a></li>

<li><a href="Kolpak_ruling" title="Kolpak ruling">Kolpak</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Corp._v._Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Corp. v. Commission">Microsoft Corp. v. Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Marleasing_SA_v_La_Comercial_Internacional_de_Alimentacion_SA" title="Marleasing SA v La Comercial Internacional de Alimentacion SA">Marleasing SA v La Comercial Internacional de Alimentacion SA</a></li>

<li><a href="Metock_v_Minister_for_Justice%2C_Equality_and_Law_Reform" title="Metock v Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform">Metock</a></li>

<li><a href="Nordsee_case" title="Nordsee case">Nordsee</a></li>

<li><a href="Palacios_de_la_Villa_v_Cortefiel_Servicios_SA" title="Palacios de la Villa v Cortefiel Servicios SA">Palacios de la Villa v Cortefiel Servicios SA</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Paul_and_Others_v_Bundesrepublik_Deutschland" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Paul and Others v Bundesrepublik Deutschland">Peter Paul and Others v Bundesrepublik Deutschland</a></li>

<li><a href="Procureur_du_Roi_v_Beno%C3%AEt_and_Gustave_Dassonville" title="Procureur du Roi v Benoît and Gustave Dassonville">Procureur du Roi v Dassonville</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralf_Sieckmann_v_Deutsches_Patent_und_Markenamt" title="Ralf Sieckmann v Deutsches Patent und Markenamt">Ralf Sieckmann v Deutsches Patent und Markenamt</a></li>

<li><a href="Tanja_Kreil" title="Tanja Kreil">Tanja Kreil</a></li>

<li><a href="Van_Duyn_v_Home_Office" title="Van Duyn v Home Office">Van Duyn v Home Office</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fraud</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Court_of_Auditors" title="European Court of Auditors">Court of Auditors</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Anti-Fraud_Office" title="European Anti-Fraud Office">European Anti-Fraud Office</a></li>

<li><a href="Accountability_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Accountability in the European Union">Accountability in the European Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Portal%3AEuropean_Union" title="Portal:European Union">European Union portal</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3ALaw" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-17" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Data_Protection_Directive&oldid=1300923211">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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